Slide One: Marxist, Postcolonial, and Ethnic Studies

Welcome! I’m Dr. Liza Long. In this presentation for English 211, we will learn more about Marxist, Postcolonial, and ethnic studies approaches to texts. Marxist criticism predates some of the other critical methods we have studied, including New Criticism, and it was influential in the development of New Historicism. Postcolonial and ethnic studies criticism both developed from New Historicism, an approach based on the idea that there are no stable facts in history, and that history, like any text, can be deconstructed. These three types of analysis share a common target: power. However, they explore the way that power operates in the creation and consumption of texts in different ways.

Ultimately, these approaches believe that all literature is inherently political. With these forms of criticism, we will look at the relationship between dominant and dominated cultures, or higher and lower socioeconomic classes. We will also explore the role that dominant cultures and racist systems can play in creating, disseminating, and consuming literary texts. When we look at the role of race and racist systems, we are engaging in a form of cultural studies called critical race theory. These three approaches to texts—Marxist, postcolonial, and ethnic studies criticism—remain relevant in literary scholarship today. If you go on to study literature, you’ll likely encounter entire courses devoted to just one of these approaches to texts.

In our next few slides, I will present some key terms and some questions you can ask as you use these approaches in literary criticism. Again, remember that this section is a brief survey of these methods. Any one of them could be the work of a scholar’s lifetime! But these approaches can help us to ask interesting questions about literary texts and the role they play in culture and society.

Slide Two: Marxist Criticism

Marxist criticism grew out of the philosophical and economic works of Karl Marx, a nineteenth century German philosopher and economist who was influenced by Friedrich Engels. These are not the only terms associated with Marxism, but they are ones we commonly encounter in Marxist literary criticism.

Alienation: this is a process that makes a worker feel like the work or products he makes are foreign, even though he or she created them. It’s more than just a feeling though: in Marx’s theory, alienation is an objective fact of a capitalist society, and without this separation, capitalism can’t function.

Base: This is sometimes also referred to as the substructure, which is the opposite of the superstructure. The base includes both the means of production and the division of labor, or working conditions.

Bourgeoisie: This is Marx’s term for the ruling class, who own the means of production. It came though French from ancient Latin (the word for castle is burgus) and is associated with property ownership.

Class: In Marx’s theories, social class plays a central role. The hierarchy of classes is determined by individual people’s roles in the production process. People in the same class share economic interests and have antagonism toward people in other classes (which are described as class struggles). Evidence of class struggles is one thing we look for in a Marxist critical approach to texts.

Commodity: This is any good or service produced by workers that can be bought and sold for money.

Dominant ideology is a means of social control that shapes the attitudes, beliefs, values, and morals shared by most of the people in a given society.

Proletariat: this is the social class comprised of laborers. Their ability to work is their only main economic possession. Workers are viewed as an exploited class in Marxist theory who labor under unfair conditions that benefit the bourgeoisie.

Subaltern: This word was coined by the Italian Marxist scholar Antonio Gramsci and is used to describe peasants or other people who are subject to the ruling class. The word is also used in Postcolonial criticism.

Superstructure: the laws, politics, religion, family, and cultural structures (including literature) that reinforce and legitimize the power of the ruling class.

Some questions we might ask when using a Marxist approach include the following:

• How is socioeconomic class represented in the text, and does the author include any analysis of class relations?
• Do you see a complete picture of the society, or are some classes excluded from the text?
• Does class status restrict or empower the characters in the text? How do the characters experience or overcome oppression?
• How does the text show class struggle, or how does class contribute to conflict in the text? Are social conflicts ignored, or is the blame placed elsewhere?
• How does the text depict the relationship between the individual and the state? Does the state view individuals as a means of production, or as ends in themselves?
• Does the work offer a utopian ideal as a solution to the problems encountered in the work?
• How might the work be seen as a critique of capitalism, imperialism, or classism?  That is, in what ways does the text reveal, and invite us to condemn, oppressive socioeconomic forces (included repressive ideologies)?  If a work criticizes or invites us to criticize oppressive socioeconomic forces, then it may be said to have Marxist agenda.

Think about the major works we are reading in this class. How does a Marxist approach apply to these works? Can you find evidence of class and class struggles?

Slide Three: Postcolonial Criticism

Postcolonial criticism is also concerned with power, social class, and dominant cultures, but this approach focuses on Western Imperialism and its effects around the globe. It should be noted that the “post” in postcolonial criticism functions the same way that the “post” in post-structuralism works—to indicate that we are deconstructing the effects of colonization—we are “decolonizing” the text.

Terms to Use

Colonialism: the practice of domination by a foreign power over people for an extended period (including exploitation of people and resources).

Postcolonialism: the academic study of the cultural, political, and economic legacy of colonialism and imperialism. It focuses on the impact of human control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands.

Ambivalence: the ambiguous way in which the colonizer and the colonized regard each other. It’s characterized by a complex mix of attraction and repulsion.

Diaspora: The original meaning of this term is “The dispersion of Jews outside of Israel from the sixth century B.C., when they were exiled to Babylonia, until the present time;” In postcolonial studies, we extend this to mean a dispersion of a people from their original homeland. It can also mean the community formed by such a people; or a dispersion of an originally homogeneous entity, such as a language or culture.

Ethnicity: an attitude of one group of people toward other group of people on the basis of different cultural values or religious values.

Decolonization: the process of dismantling colonialist power in all its forms.

Orientalism: way of seeing the East, especially the Middle East, in a negative light. It’s a Western tradition that was shaped by the cultural attitudes of European imperialism in the 18th and 19th centuries. Edward Said’s 1978 book Orientalism was foundational in establishing this concept as well as pioneering postcolonial approaches to texts.

Hegemony: the power of the ruling class to convince other classes that their interests are the interests of all (different from political power). This is achieved through economic and political control, control of education and media, and the consent of dominated people/groups. Example: influencers on social media

Hierarchy: a critical description of global coexistence that is centered on the concentration of power, rather than striving for a more equal distribution of power. Generally, lighter skinned people are associated with power.

Hybridity: an important concept in post-colonial theory, referring to the integration (or, mingling) of cultural signs and practices from the colonizing and the colonized cultures

Imperialism: ideology that promotes the belief that one group of people or nation is superior to others.

Mimicry: practice of colonized people adopting the customs, techniques, and language of the colonizer.

The “Other”: in postcolonial studies, this term refers to colonized people who are defined by their differences from the colonizers.

Resistance: Postcolonial theory is built around the concept of resistance. It establishes intellectual spaces for subaltern peoples to speak for themselves. It also struggles for ethnic, cultural, and political autonomy.

Some questions we might ask when using a postcolonial approach include the following:

• Where and when is the work set? Is it in a colony, a former colony, or a country that has gained its independence from Great Britain, Spain, France, etc.?
• How does the text depict interactions and relationships between colonizers and the colonized?
• How does the text, explicitly or allegorically, represent various aspects of colonial oppression? Think about language, communication, and knowledge in colonized countries.
• What principles of colonialism do you see in the text? For example, do you see colonial powers take land, exploit the economy or environment, or enslave the indigenous population?
• How do the colonial conflicts and politics of the text affect its meaning?
• Are there similarities among the literatures of different postcolonial populations?

Slide Four: Ethnic Studies

If Ethnic Studies feels like a broad category, that’s because it is. Within the broad umbrella of ethnic studies, we find further specializations including African American or Black studies, Chicano/a studies, and Indigenous studies. The common factor in these approaches is the focus on power. With all types of ethnic studies, there’s considerable overlap among the disciplines of history, literature, anthropology, sociology, and political science.

The scholarship example I chose for you to read is an excerpt from an article by African American studies scholar Martha Biondi, which traces the history and considers the future of the field. Biondi’s article provides perspectives from a variety of scholars and also introduces you to the concept of Afrocentricity, which places African knowledge systems at the center of literary analysis.

The terminology we use for Ethnic Studies is often specific to the subfield. Here are some terms you might encounter (again, notice the overlaps with postcolonial criticism):

Afrocentricity: Academic theory that centers African knowledge in examining historical and cultural contexts for literary texts.

Colonialism: the practice of domination by a foreign power over people for an extended period (including exploitation of people and resources)

Decolonization: The process of undoing the effects of colonization, including reclaiming indigenous knowledge, promoting cultural revitalization, and challenging the dominant narratives and structures imposed by colonizers

Ethnicity: A socially constructed category that groups people based on shared cultural, linguistic, or national characteristics.

Hybridity: The mixing or blending of different cultural elements, often used to describe the complex cultural identities that arise from the intersection of multiple ethnic or racial backgrounds.

Identity Politics: A political approach that focuses on the experiences and perspectives of specific identity groups, such as racial or ethnic minorities, LGBTQ+ individuals, or women, to address issues of inequality and social justice.

Intersectionality: A concept that recognizes the complex and interconnected nature of social identities, such as race, gender, class, and sexuality. Intersectionality highlights the ways in which multiple forms of oppression can intersect and compound to shape individuals’ experiences and opportunities.

Mestizaje: A concept used in Latin American and Chicano/a studies to describe the mixing or blending of indigenous and European cultures, often emphasizing the resilience and creativity of mixed-race populations.

Othering: The process of defining oneself or one’s group in opposition to an imagined or constructed “Other,” often used to justify discrimination, exclusion, or marginalization.

Postcolonialism: the academic study of the cultural, political, and economic legacy of colonialism and imperialism. It focuses on the impact of human control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands.

Racialization: The process by which individuals or groups are assigned racial identities and subjected to racial discrimination based on perceived racial characteristics.

The questions we ask about a text using this approach will depend on the particular branch of ethnic studies we are using. However, here are some broad guiding questions:

• Whose Voices are Represented, and Whose are Silenced?: What ethnic, racial, and cultural backgrounds are depicted in the text? How are marginalized voices, identities, and experiences represented or overlooked?
• How are Stereotypes Challenged or Reinforced?: What stereotypes about ethnic and racial groups are present in the text, and how are they depicted? Are these stereotypes challenged or reinforced by the narrative and characters?
• What are the Power Dynamics?: How are power dynamics related to race, ethnicity, and culture portrayed in the text? Who has power and authority, and how is this power exercised?
• What is the Role of Cultural Values and Traditions?: How are cultural values, traditions, and practices portrayed in the text? Are they presented positively, negatively, or neutrally? How do they influence characters’ actions and beliefs?
• How are Colonial and Postcolonial Themes Addressed?: How does the text address themes of colonization, imperialism, and resistance? How are the legacies of colonialism and the impacts of postcolonialism portrayed?

Slide Five: Critical Race Theory

I’m including a brief postscript about Critical Race Theory because it’s a part of the discourse right now. This is probably a good time to remind you that I am not endorsing any of these critical methods; I am just introducing you to them as critical approaches to analyzing literary texts. Like our previous three approaches, CRT also focuses on power. Critical Race Theory can be defined as “a set of ideas holding that racial bias is inherent in many parts of western society, especially in its legal and social institutions, on the basis of their having been primarily designed for and implemented by white people.” (Oxford Languages). According to Mateo Castelli, “Critical Race Theory can be used to deconstruct the power dynamics that surround race and racism through everyday societal structures and institutions.”

Some of the terms used in CRT overlap with other critical methods in this section.

Social construct: an idea that has been created and accepted by the people in a society. In Critical Race Theory, race is a social construct that is not supported by biological reality.

Disparity: the idea that people are treated differently because of their race

Discrimination: Discrimination is the process of making unfair or prejudicial distinctions between people based on groups, classes, or other categories. Critical race theorists Richard Delgado and Jean Stefancic argue that anti-discrimination law has blindspots for non-black minorities because its language is confined within the black–white binary.

Equity: “the state, quality or ideal of being just, impartial and fair.”

Marginalization: the process of putting someone in a powerless or unimportant position within a society or group. It can also be used as a verb to describe the casting aside of groups that are considered “other” within society.

Counter-Storytelling: A process that is used to amplify and share  the stories, experiences, narratives, and truths of marginalized people.

Standpoint Theory: an individual’s perspectives are shaped by their social and political experiences.

Intersectionality: the interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, regarded as creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage. (Oxford Languages)

Slide Six: Applying Marxist, Postcolonial, and Ethnic Studies Criticism

Let’s consider these approaches with our text for this section, “A Cup of Tea” by early twentieth century New Zealand author Katherine Mansfield. As with New Historicism, we need to know something about the author and her context before we can apply these approaches. Let’s ask ourselves these questions?

• Who was the author? When did she write? What were the dominant power structures like at that time? A quick Google search will tell you that Katherine Mansfield lived at the height of the British Empire. She also wrote during the time period when Marxist ideologies were increasingly prevalent in politics—the Russian revolution of 1917 being perhaps the most prominent example.
• See the examples in our textbook for three different approaches exploring power in this text.
• To use these methods, make an argument about the text that includes and considers power For a Marxist argument, look at social class. Consider Rosemary and the girl she brings home. For postcolonial, you could look at the author as a colonizer, or you could look for evidence of colonization in the text—and you don’t have to look far. The title contains one of the chief reasons for colonization: tea. What has tea become in this text? This particular story does not work as well with an ethnic studies approach. You could consider how the indigenous Māori culture is excluded from the narrative and also consider Mansfield’s romantic relationship with a Māori woman, Maata Mahupuku. But I’ve provided a link to another short story by Mansfield, “How Pearl Button Was Kidnapped,” that deals explicitly with the Māori culture, showing the “otherness” of the white settlers to the indigenous people through the eyes of a white child who feels more comfortable with the Māoris than with whites.

Slide Seven: Limitations

While Marxist, Postcolonial, and Ethnic Studies approaches can provide valuable insights into literary texts, each approach has its limitations.

1. Marxist Criticism:
   • Economic Determinism: Marxist criticism can sometimes oversimplify complex human motivations by reducing them to economic factors. It may neglect the role of other aspects such as psychology, individual agency, or cultural influences.
   • Neglect of Other Power Structures: While economic structures are central, Marxist criticism may downplay or overlook other power structures, such as those based on gender, race, or personal relationships.
2. Postcolonial Criticism:
   • Homogenization of Cultures: Postcolonial criticism might risk oversimplifying diverse cultures within a colonized region, treating them as homogeneous entities. This can lead to the erasure of internal conflicts and complexities within these cultures.
   • Western-Centric Perspectives: There is a risk of perpetuating a Western-centric view, as postcolonial theory often originates from Western academic institutions. This may unintentionally reproduce power imbalances (the scholarship example you read identifies this limitation).
3. Ethnic Studies Criticism
   • Overemphasis on Identity: Sometimes, ethnic studies can focus so much on racial, cultural, or national identities that it may overlook other important aspects of the text, such as its formal qualities, narrative structure, or thematic elements.
   • Homogenization: There’s a risk of essentializing or homogenizing diverse experiences within a particular racial or ethnic group. For instance, if we assume that all African American experiences are the same, or all Asian American experiences are the same, we can overlook the complex and varied experiences of individuals within these groups.
   • Political and Ideological Biases: Ethnic studies can sometimes be influenced by political or ideological biases, which might limit the scope of analysis or lead to particular interpretations being favored over others.

While many scholars who engage in ethnic studies criticism identify with the ethnicity they study, this is not universal. Martha Biondi, for example, is a white woman who specializes in African American studies. However, Critical Race Theory may have additional limitations in its focus on race as well as pedagogical challenges because it centers lived experience, and not all students have this. It’s important to note that these issues don’t necessarily negate the value of these approaches; however, we should try to avoid oversimplification or bias. Combining multiple critical perspectives can often provide a more comprehensive understanding of a literary text.

Slide Eight: Theoretical Response: Revisiting Texts

For our theoretical response this week, we will revisit the three poems we worked with for our first essay.

• Please choose a different poem than the one you wrote your essay about.
• Choose one of the critical approaches (Marxist, Postcolonial, or Ethnic Studies) to apply to your text.
• Create a list of questions about the text using the examples for “A Cup of Tea” as your guide. You can also use ChatGPT or another generative AI program to help you generate your list.
• Write your 500-750 word “mini-essay” and post to the discussion board.

As always, if you have any questions, please reach out! I really look forward to seeing your responses and application of these theories.